China 1949-1976
Communist Victory 1949
When the communists took power in 1949 they faced many strategic challenges. The beginning of a new dynasty in China had traditionally followed a traditional rhythm. The new dynasty would affirm the universal values and promise to restore order. Confucian ideas about the importance of respecting authority were highlighted and the civil bureaucracy re-established to govern the country. Under Mao and the Communists this changed.
The Great Harmony
Mao unleashed a program of permanent change on China. He called it the Great Harmony. Mao's plan for China was a state of permanent crisis. Mao unleashed wave after wave of struggle and disruption. According to Mao the 'Chinese people could never be permitted to rest on their achievements.’ He made it a deliberate policy to tear apart Chinese traditions and its ancient heritage.
The thought, culture and tradition which brought China to where we found her must disappear. Proletarian China which does not exist, must appear…… Thought, culture and customs must be born of struggle, and the struggle must continue, while there is a danger of a return to the past.
Mao Zedong 1965
Mao faced many challenges in 1949.
Strategically China had open borders with over a dozen countries.
China had just been through Japanese occupation and a Civil War. Chinese society was fractured after a century of conflict and upheaval.
It had inadequate resources to deal with the many threats.
The USA had become very involved in Asian affairs and was hostile to the new Chinese leadership.
To do: Ministerial briefing: Threats to the new China.
You have been asked to write a ministerial briefing outlining the strategic challenges faced by the new nation in 1949.
Spatial analysis: Use maps and quotes to explain your observations. EG Tibet and India.
Strategic threats: List and briefly describe the strategic threats to the new country.
Country resources: Briefly outline the state of Chinese society at this point using examples.
Military strength: Is China strong enough militarily to unite the country and deal with external threats? Give reasons (positive and negative) for your assessment.
Allies: Does China have allies it can rely on?
Extra: Who lost China?
After Mao's 1949 Communist victory, a debate erupted as U.S. politicians and strategists blamed each other for "losing" China as an ally during the early years of the Cold War. The debate reflected America's perception that it’s support would be key to a Nationalist victory.
Describe the role of the US in China’s conflicts to 1948.
1.Mao shapes a new nation
The CCP began its program of moving towards the ultimate goal of a Communist (classless) society as envisioned by Mao with is Marxist-Leninist philosophy. The change was initially very popular as the Communists restored law and order and rebuilt infrastructure destroyed in previous turmoil. Mao aimed for a classless society in which no one is born into a social class. Distinctions of wealth, income, education, culture, or social network might arise and would only be determined by individual experience and achievement in such a society.
Five key ideas
Socialist ideals of equality and egalitarianism drove social reforms after 1949 – but they were often accompanied with repressive measures including 're-education', imprisonment and mass executions.
Collective agriculture: Society was turned upside down by the collectivisation of farms and and communal living.
The 1950 Marriage Law and the 1954 Constitution offered women new rights and a greater sense of equality in marriage and employment. This did not necessarily result in political involvement, nor did it break down established patriarchal traditions in rural areas.
Education and literacy rates were greatly improved with the introduction of pinyin, a language system that made the phonetic teaching of characters much simpler.
Only room for one God: Mao felt that the old ideas and traditions had led to China becoming backward and weak. Under Mao, China was officially atheist and the major religions, including Confucianism and Christianity, were publicly denounced, undermined and attacked.
The (First) five year plan. 1953 - 1957
The First Five-Year Plan was an economic policy adopted by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) after it seized control of China. The plan targeted increased production in coal, steel and petrochemicals. A good deal of China’s economic growth in this period centred on urban, industrial and infrastructure projects. These works enhanced the quality of life for urban populations, whose numbers increased from 57 million to 100 million between 1949 and 1957. Life expectancy rose from 36 to 57 years, city housing standards improved and urban incomes increased by 40 per cent.
To Do: Questions
List some of the reasons the Communists were initially popular with the Chinese population.
Define the following terms; communism, socialism and democracy
Use examples to describe how a 'classless society' was going to work.
How did literacy rates improve after 1949?
What was Mao Zedong's motivation for attacking traditional Chinese philosophy and religion?
How did the CCP improve the position of women in Chinese society?
How did the CCP attempt to change agriculture after 1949?
What was the first 5 year plan and what were its aims?
Sending government officials to work in the countryside 1957
2. The 100 Flowers Campaign
Background briefing: Mao invites criticism. The 100 flowers campaign
In early 1956, as the first Five Year Plan reached high tide, the party, flush with success, invited comments from Chinese intellectuals and the public in a directive known as the Hundred Flowers Campaign, a metaphor equating contending ideas with blooming flowers. Initially hesitant to speak out, first scientists and then literary figures, students, and common people voiced criticisms of party policies. This was not only tolerated but encouraged.
Mao Zedong announced that the government wanted to hear citizens' true opinions about life in Communist China. He continued to promote the development of a new Chinese culture, he stated that "Criticism of the bureaucracy is pushing the government towards the better." This was initially a shock to the Chinese people as the Communist Party had previously cracked down on any citizen bold enough to criticize the party or its officials.
Mao also welcomed criticism of CCP policy and ideology. “Can Marxism be criticised?” Mao asked. “Certainly it can. Marxism is scientific truth and fears no criticism. If it did, and if it could be overthrown by criticism, it would be worthless”
After only five weeks the government had second thoughts about the Hundred Flowers Movements and the concept of freedom of expression
10 Sources Analysis Answer Guide
Don’t forget: Quote often and begin your response with name of the author, not the Source number. Put the source number in brackets at the end of the quote/paraphrasing.
For example:
This is supported by Jones who states that 'History students would be more popular at parties if they used this method.' (Source 3)
More successful responses:
contain relevant evidence (quotes and observations) from sources when required.
Less successful responses
provide responses without reference to any evidence from the source
state that sources are limited without explaining why using evidence
do not assess the nature of sources clearly
do not explain how the nature and origin of the sources are a strength or limitation
do not include the source in the response.
Sources - 100 Flowers Campaign
Source 1. One Hundred Flowers. Alpha History
'Despite Mao’s assurances, the first months of the Hundred Flowers campaign yielded only a gentle wave of public criticism and comment, most of it on minor issues. There was little significant criticism of Mao, the government or the CCP. This began to change in late spring 1957 after Mao all but demanded suggestions and criticism from his people. Leading academics took the bold step of speaking critically about government policies. This uncorked the genie and unleashed a torrent of public comment. Millions of letters began pouring into government offices, venting criticisms about everything from the lateness of public transport to Mao’s personal conduct. As in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, some of the strongest criticism came from China’s university students in Beijing.
Questions
Explain why you think that the initial criticism was limited.
Use evidence from the source to show the catalyst for people to speak more openly.
Use examples to outline the criticisms after Mao encouraged people to be more open.
Source 2. Mao encourages reform. Mao's personal physician Li Zhisui
The campaign was "a gamble, based on a calculation that genuine counterrevolutionaries were few, that rebels like Hu Feng had been permanently intimidated into silence, and that other intellectuals would follow Mao's lead, speaking out only against the people and practices Mao himself most wanted to subject to reform."
Question
Why does Li Zhisui think that Mao was confident to allow criticism of the CCP?
Source 3. The Anti- Rightist campaign. Asian History
'After only five weeks the government had second thoughts about the Hundred Flowers Movements and the concept of freedom of expression. They then launched the Anti-Rightist campaign. This movement lasted from 1957 to 1959, it consisted of campaigns to purge alleged rightists within the Communist Party both in China and abroad. The term "rightists" was largely used to refer to intellectuals accused of favouring capitalism over collectivisation.
Questions
Use examples from the source to describe the purpose of the Anti-Rightist campaigns.
Source 4. Silencing intellectuals. Anti-Rightist posters at Beijing University. Unknown origin.
In Source 4 students and academics at Beijing University are reading Anti Rightist propaganda
and lists of critics of communism.
Question
Describe what is happening in this photo
How would these public displays have influenced public discussions of the Communist party?
Source 5. Mao the untold story. Chang. J. 2005
‘The campaign was, from the start, a ruse intended to expose rightists and counter-revolutionaries, Mao Zedong persecuted those whose views were different from the party's. It was an orchestrated campaign to flush out dissidents by encouraging them to show themselves as critical of the regime, and then subsequently banish, imprison or execute them. Mao remarked at the time that he had "enticed the snakes out of their caves."
Questions.
Use evidence form the source to explain the purpose of Mao’s 100 Flowers campaign?
How does Source 5 conflict with Source 2?
Source 6. Revolution, Reintegration, and Crisis in Communist China. Cohen. J. 1968
‘The campaign destroyed the formal legal system that had been under development in China, condemning the country to two decades in which every citizen was vulnerable to persecution by those in power and denied legal protection of their basic rights. The purge, which lasted into the early 1960s, also played a part in the rural famine which killed upwards of 30 million between 1958 and 1961, as many of the experts who might have spotted early warning signs of disaster were in labour camps, and officials still in position had learned how criticism would be received.’
Questions.
Use evidence form the source to describe the impact of the campaign on basic rights?
How did the purge of academics and intellectuals contribute to the famine in 1958-60.
3. The Great Leap Forward. 1958-1961
'We can do better.' Said Mao
The Great Leap Forward was a five-year plan of forced agricultural collectivization and rural industrialization that was instituted by the Chinese Communist Party in 1958, which resulted in a sharp contraction in the Chinese economy and between 30 to 45 million deaths by starvation, execution, torture, forced labour, and suicide out of desperation. It was the largest single, non-wartime campaign of mass killing in human history.
5 Key points
The Great Leap Forward was a five-year economic plan executed by Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party, begun in 1958 and abandoned in 1961.
The goal was to modernize the country's agricultural sector using communist economic ideologies.
Instead of stimulating the country's economy, The Great Leap Forward resulted in mass starvation and famine.
It is estimated that between 30 and 45 million Chinese citizens died due to famine, execution, and forced labour, along with massive economic and environmental destruction.
The Great Leap Forward remains the largest episode of non-wartime mass killing in human history, and a clear example of the failures of socialism and economic central planning.
“I had less land and worse land than other men but was told that after the grain tax was paid we would all share the harvest alike. In that way, no one would lose anything but all would gain.
I thought that sounded alright ”
Background briefing: The Great Famine
‘China was no stranger to famine. Its agricultural productivity was easily disrupted by climate events, natural disasters, wars or other disturbances, and as a consequence, harvests were prone to failure or low yields. More than six million Chinese peasants starved during the upheaval of the warlord period (1916-27), for example, while another eight million perished during the Nationalist period (1927-49). The Great Chinese Famine, which unfolded in the late 1950s, was deadlier than both combined.’ Taken from Alpha History: The Great Famine
The origins of the famine can be traced to Mao Zedong's decision, supported by the leadership of China's communist party, to launch the Great Leap Forward. This mass mobilisation of the country's huge population was to achieve in just a few years economic advances that took other nations many decades to accomplish
5 key causes of the Great Famine
The Great Leap Forward was a radical industrialisation program that diverted large numbers of agricultural workers to steel production, severely disrupting farming output.
The new collective farming systems destroyed traditional farming practices and knowledge
Local officials, fearing punishment, reported fake high crop yields to please superiors. This led central authorities to demand excessive grain quotas, leaving farmers with little to eat.
Despite awareness of food shortages, China maintained grain exports to demonstrate economic success and repay debts to the Soviet Union, while millions starved.
There were droughts and floods during this period, the impact of these natural disasters was severely magnified by the poor policies associated with the Great Leap Forward.
“Before [the Great Leap Forward] this was all virgin forest, with pines a foot thick. It was so dense that I was afraid to go in there at night. The brush and branches we gathered were enough for all our firewood, we never had to cut the trees… I was only 10 or 11 during the Leap. We collected scrap metal and pots while the grownups cut the trees. The result was a big mess of melted metal. We turned it over to the local steel factories to process further. This was supposed to be the first step. But the temperature was too low. Wood can never burn hot enough to make steel.”
A peasant from Lei Da Shi, Sichuan province
To do: Belair Bugle article. The Great Leap Forward
Write a Belair Bugle Article describing the Great Leap Forward.
What were Mao's aims? (Include quotes)
Use examples to describe the reasons for the failure of the industrial policies.
Use examples of changes to farming practices to explain the resulting famine.
Include statistics to explain the failure of the Great Leap Forward and the devastating impact on Chinese society.
Explain Mao’s political status after this period.
5. The Cultural Revolution 1966 - 1976
Mao sidelined
Poor weather and the failed policies of the Great Leap Forward decimated rural China in 1959-61, causing the deaths of up to 30 million people. The disaster generated criticism of Mao Zedong and led to political divisions in the CCP. In 1960 pragmatists in the CCP seized control of China’s economic policy and set about rescuing the nation. At the helm of this economic program were Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. Together they wound back Mao’s hasty rush toward socialism, eased pressure on the peasantry, imported grain and diverted food resources to the hungry.
Mao’s People’s Communes were also overhauled and downsized, as was Mao’s ‘backyard furnace’ program. while peasants were allowed to farm their own small plots and trade at local markets. These reforms ended the famine and facilitated a degree of economic recovery in the early 1960s.
“The problem in the past few years was caused by unrealistic grain collecting quotas, unrealistic estimates, unrealistic procurement figures and unrealistic workloads… Was the disaster a natural calamity, or was it caused by people? In Hunan, the people say that three-tenths was natural calamity and seven-tenths was man-made. Throughout the country, quite a few errors have been made while implementing policy… [But] should take collective responsibility rather than blame individual departments or people.” Mao Zedong 1962
The Cultural Revolution 1966-1976
In response to being sidelined, Mao Zedong made plans to reassert his control and reshape Chinese society. He had long wanted a campaign against anti-socialist and anti-CCP criticisms. In May to August 1966, Mao used rhetoric and propaganda to urge militant students to assemble and “bombard the headquarters” and force reactionary and bourgeois figures from positions of authority. As the Red Guards swelled in number, Mao appeared before a series of rallies in August to October, wearing their uniform and symbols and urging them to destroy the ‘Four Olds’.
Five key aims of the Cultural Revolution
Eliminate political rivals and threats to his leadership. He targeted officials he saw as "capitalist roaders" or those taking China toward capitalism, especially Deng Xiaoping.
Purge Chinese society of "bourgeois" and traditional elements by attacking the "Four Olds" - old customs, culture, habits, and ideas. Replacing traditional Chinese values with Maoist revolutionary ideology.
Create a new generation of revolutionary youth, the ‘Red Guards’ would carry out his vision, encouraging them to challenge authority figures and attack intellectuals, teachers, and party officials deemed insufficiently revolutionary.
Reshape China's education system. Close Universities and send intellectuals to rural areas for "reeducation through labor." He wanted to eliminate educational elitism and bridge the gap between urban and rural areas.
Establish a new form of social organisation, China would experience continuous revolution where hierarchies would be constantly challenged and overturned to prevent the emergence of a new privileged class.
The results were catastrophic. Widespread violence, destruction of historical sites and artifacts, persecution of millions of people, severe economic disruption, and the breakdown of education and civil society.
Who were the Red Guards?
The Red Guards were paramilitary style organisations, formed in mid-1966 by militant students who were fanatically loyal to Mao Zedong. Red Guard numbers grew quickly, encouraged by propaganda from the state press and encouragement from Mao. Mao called on the Red Guards to “bombard the headquarters” (attack reactionary figures in the party and government) and “demolish the Four Olds” (old ideas, customs, culture and traditions). By late 1966 the Red Guards had escalated their attacks, destroying symbols of the old order, seizing millions of yuan in private property and arresting and persecuting leaders such as Deng Xiaoping.
Source: Extract meeting minutes. Cultural Revolution Group and Red Flag fighters. 17.11.1966.
Chairman Mao points out: “If the intellectuals don’t unite with the worker and peasant masses, then they will be incomplete.” Young students should gradually complete the process of uniting with the masses, and all University and Middle School students should modestly learn from workers and peasants and should serve the workers and peasants heart and soul. Students who go on the great liaison to the factories should in an integrated fashion, as far as possible, take part in productive labour and strictly observe labour discipline.
Question: Why did Mao believe that students had to go ‘out into the countryside’?
“The purpose of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution is to destroy the old culture. You cannot stop us! ”
To do: A users guide to the Cultural Revolution
How was Mao Zedong treated after the Great Leap Forward (GLF)?
Describe four policies of the pragmatists aimed at restoring China after the tragedies of the GLF.
How successful were the reforms?
Was there criticism of Mao Zedong after the GLF? How did he respond to this 'feedback'.
Describe the purpose of the Cultural revolution and explain Mao's aims? What did Mao encourage the youth of China to do?
Explain the Four Olds
What was the 'Cult of Mao' and what did Mao do to encourage it.
What was the purpose of sending people to the countryside during the Cultural Revolution?
Who were the Gang of Four?
Use evidence to explain Mao's motivation for starting the Cultural Revolution
Postscript: After Mao’s death
After Mao Zedong's death in 1976, China underwent significant political, economic, and social transformations. The post-Mao era was the end of the Cultural Revolution and the beginning of China’s reform and modernisation.
Immediate Aftermath (1976)
Mao’s death left a power vacuum. He was succeeded by Hua Guofeng who arrested the "Gang of Four" (including Mao’s widow, Jiang Qing), a radical faction blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution that had left China in chaos. This move consolidated Hua’s position and signaled the end of the political purges, social upheaval, and economic stagnation that charecterised the last period of the mao era.
Rise of Deng Xiaoping (1978)
Guofeng’s leadership was short-lived and by 1978, Deng Xiaoping, a pragmatic reformer who had been purged during the Cultural Revolution emerged as China’s paramount leader. Though he never held the title of Chairman, Deng wielded immense influence through his control of the party and military. Deng shifted the CCP’s focus from class struggle and ideological purity to economic development and modernisation, laying the groundwork for the "Reform and Opening-Up" period.
To do: questions
Who was Deng Xiaoping?
Why is Deng considered the originator of China’s status as a modern industrial powerhouse?
6. Mao on trial
Mao on trial
If Mao was put on trial for crimes against China, what would he be charged with?
If you were asked to defend his lifework, what would you say?
If Mao was invited to defend his record, how would he respond?
Case for the prosecution
Outline the charges against Mao, include facts and statistics to make your case.
It is important that you explain that the costs of Mao's policies were too high and that Mao was criminal in his intent.
What could China have been without Mao?
Case for the defense
Outline the defense for Mao, include facts and statistics to make your case.
It is important that you explain that there were certainly costs associated with Mao's.
However you need to explain that the policies were successful in making modern China a world power.
What would China have been without Mao?
The defendant speaks
Mao has been asked to explain himself.
Can he defend the indefensible?
Do you have to break eggs to make an omelette?
There are problems, but what about the success's?
